Causes And Effects Of U.S. Imperialism - 812 Words

In analyzing the causes and effects of United States Imperialism from 1870 to 1916, one finds that there are three main factors. These major factors of United States Imperialism in this time period are: Hawaii, the Spanish-American war, and Theodore Roosevelt. In this time period Hawaiian islanders were very happy to live traditionally, but Americans were not content with the traditional ways of the Hawaiians (Buschini, n.pag.). Even though America seemed to be on the road to imperialism with Hawaii, the Spanish- American war actually set the United States on the new road of Imperialism (The Spanish American War n.pag.). Theodore Roosevelt played an important role in the United States road to imperialism in the 1870 s while serving as†¦show more content†¦In mid April 1898, congress authorized McKinley to use armed forces to expel the Spanish from Cuba. On April 20, 1898 the United States went to war with Spain. George Dewey then decided that he wanted to leave his mark in t his war. So, on May 1, 1898 he destroyed a Spanish flotilla in the harbor of Manila in the Philippines. TheShow MoreRelatedNegative Effects Of Imperialism1139 Words   |  5 Pagesevents are talked about. That just shows what imperialism causes. Imperialism is when a dominant country seeks to increase their size and forces (either by war or diplomacy) a smaller country to submit to their rule. The Age of Imperialism began in the 1870s and went until World War 1. During this time imperialism was very prevalent and the events that took place during this time had lasting effects and still affect us to this day. While imperialism could be seen as beneficial, especially to theRead MoreImperialism is when a mother nation takes over another nation and become its colony for political,700 Words   |  3 PagesImperialism is when a mother nation takes over another nation and become its colony for political, social, and economical reasons. Imperialism is a progressive force for both the oppr essors (mother country) and the oppressed (colony), majorly occurring during the late 19th and early 20th century. It had more negative effects than positive effects due to its domination to other nations. Documents 1 and 5 show how imperialism should work over politics and their benefits over the colonies while documentsRead MoreHaiti: The Corruptions of Imperialism Reigns Essay1325 Words   |  6 PagesImperialism has carved entire continents, destroyed ancient cultures, uprooted millions of people from their ancestral homes, and created an oppressive systems that traps third world countries. In the book â€Å"Promises Not Kept†, the author, John Isbister states: â€Å"Imperialism shaped today’s third world.† This statement explains how the third world itself is nothing more than the aftermath of imperialism. The best method to demonstrate how imperialism plays out begins with colonization. EuropeanRead MoreThe Causes Of The First World War1395 Words   |  6 PagesThe causes of the First World War were similar and differed from the causes of the Second World War politically, economically, and socially. Both of these significant, historical events were sub stantially affected by the interaction of dominating societies during this time period. During the First World War, these leading societies were the European authorities of Britain, Germany, and Austria, with slight assistance from the U.S. However, the United States allocated their full engagement duringRead MoreMajor Themes And Societal Importance Of The Heart Of Darkness1302 Words   |  6 PagesMajor Themes and Societal Importance of the Heart of Darkness Conrad’s Heart of Darkness is one of the most well known novels written about Africa in U.S history. This novel provides individuals with a look inside the horrid functioning of the Congo, highlighting many imperialistic, inhumane, and discriminatory acts that made it one of the most cruel and insatiable colonies in African history. Conrad expresses his anti-imperialist views through Marlow, illustrating the horrors Marlow witnessed onRead MoreEvents Leading up to World War II1741 Words   |  7 PagesFor example: time; place and how it relates to colonization by the nation you are examining or other nations. The Great Depression, which occurred in 1929, devastated the economy of many counties worldwide, including Japan. Thus, many sought for imperialism as the answer, such as the Western power and Japan. Japan targeted China, planning on taking advantage of the turmoil that was taking place inside the country, greatly devastating the country by military power. Watching closely over the feud betweenRead MoreGenocides And Genocides Of Genocides987 Words   |  4 Pageswars occurring over the past century. The most known genocides are ones that occurred in Rwanda and Darfur. Researchers have found that most genocides show the same patterns and key elements. As different genocides of Africa have occurred, the causes of genocides, along with the role modern countries play in Africa’s genocides have been discovered. Although there have been a number of genocides in Africa, the 1994 Rwandan genocide was the most vehement. During no other time in history were soRead MoreThe French Revolution Occurred During The Time Periods1414 Words   |  6 Pagesthe time periods 1787 to 1799 which shook France. Its climax reached in 1789 when the ancien regime ended in France. The French Revolution was the most violent and by far the most universally significant revolution compared to the rest. The initial cause of the revolution was the social structure of the West. One social structure that was based on the holding of all land by fees that resulted in the relation of the king to vassal was called the feudal system that weakened step-by-step and had alreadyRead MoreThe War Of The Worlds By H. G. Wells1511 Words   |  7 Pageshuman nature. The War of the Worlds, by H. G. Wells, was a reflection of its time, and it shows the idea of imperialism at the time by exploring how the differences between Martians a nd humans causes a moral disconnect which was an allegory to express the British lack of empathy toward their colonies, how radical ideologies took advantage of that disconnect for their own profit, and why imperialism is morally hypocritical. Martins were able to fight humans so successfully because of their advancedRead MoreEthics Away From Home By Thomas Donaldson1507 Words   |  7 Pagesbecause in the eyes of the cultural relativist there are no absolute wrongs. On the other extreme end of the spectrum is the belief in ethical imperialism. Ethical imperialism states that no matter where the company is doing business, they must do exactly as they would at home. For the ethical imperialist, morals are absolute and unchangeable. Ethical imperialism does not allow any room for context. Donaldson argues that neither of these two extreme positions gets it right. I agree with him as well

Models The Reality Of Being Fake - 2144 Words

Jordyn Ramos Honors English 10 Period 4 10 march 2016 Photoshopping Models: The Reality of Being Fake The majority of today’s society knows that many images in magazines are retouched or edited. What people do not know, is that practically every image in magazines are edited and models in them are completely photoshopped to be thinner, flawless, and unrealistic. Models should not be photoshopped because Photoshopped models have harmful effects on women in society, models themselves, and those images are bad for advertisement. There are many companies taking stands against Photoshop in advertising to help minimize the issue, but not enough is being done to put the issue to an end. Most people are unaware of what Photoshop is and what it is†¦show more content†¦Images with Photoshopped models have many consequences. In this case, the victims of Photoshop are women in society that look up to Photoshopped models as â€Å"real beauty†. This is because some women do not know that their ideas of beauty presented in magazines, are created by a computer program. In her article, â€Å"What’s behind the culture of Photoshop in Advertising† (2013), Susan Krashinsky introduced her argument that Photoshop was having negative effects on women. In order to develop her argument, Krashinsky used statistics and cited editors and companies that use Photoshop and know the severity of the topic. Since Krashinsky’s article, Photoshop has only grown bigger in the modeling industry; and its results on women have grown as well. Today, the effects of seeing Photoshopped models include eating disorders and distorted body images. The results of these physical, emotional, and psychological medical issues can vary, but are unhealthy and can become deadly, no matter the situation. Eating disorders are the most harmful consequences of Photoshop. Eating disorders are medical illnesses that result in unhealthy eating habits while wanting to lose weight. According to The American Medical Association, â€Å"Alterations made through processes like Photoshop can contribute to unrealistic body image expectations, eating disorders and other emotional problems† (Diller 1). This is because Photoshop, as previously mentioned, simply makes a

Adivasi free essay sample

Adivasi is an umbrella term for a heterogeneous set of ethnic and tribal groups claimed to be the aboriginal population of India. [1][2][3] They comprise a substantial indigenous minority of the population of India. The same term Adivasi is used for the ethnic minorities of Bangladesh and the native Vedda people of Sri Lanka (Sinhala: ). [4] The word is also used in the same sense in Nepal as is another word janajati (Nepali: ; janajati), although the political context differed historically under the Shah and Rana dynasties. Adivasi societies are particularly present in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and some north-eastern states, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Many smaller tribal groups are quite sensitive to ecological degradation caused by modernisation. Both commercial forestry and intensive agriculture have proved destructive to the forests that had endured swidden agriculture for many centuries. [5] Connotations of the word adivasi[edit] Although terms such as atavika, vanavasi (forest dwellers), or girijan (hill people)[6] are also used for the tribes of India, adivasi carries the specific meaning of being the original and autochthonous inhabitants of a given region and was specifically coined for that purpose in the 1930s. [7] Over time, unlike the terms aborigines or tribes, the word adivasi has developed a connotation of past autonomy which was disrupted during the British colonial period in India and has not been restored. [8] In Nepal, the infiltration of Khas people from west to east through the Middle Hills, then the consolidation of dozens of petty kingdoms by the Shahs followed by the usurpation by the Ranas brought indigenous nationalities under orthodox Hindu rule and then codified inferior social and political status into a corpus of law known as Muluki Ain. Although the Shah kings were restored to power in the revolution of 1950, they still governed mostly for and through high caste Bahuns, Thakuris, Chhetris and Newars. Enfranchisement of adivasis—except Newars—seldom advanced beyond lip service. This produced grievances that were instrumental in the Nepalese Civil War, where the rank and file of guerrilla fighters were largely adivasi. Thus in Nepal, there are no historical parallels to British interference with orthodox Hindu discrimination, nor was there much resembling Indias significantly effective post-Independence efforts[citation needed] to improve the lot of adivasis. In India, opposition to usage of the term is varied, and it has been argued that the original inhabitant contention is based on the fact that they have no land and are therefore asking for a land reform. They argue that they have been oppressed by the superior group and that therefore they require and demand a reward and more specifically a land reform . [9] In Northeast India, the term adivasi applies only to the Tea-tribes imported from Central India during colonial times, while all tribal groups refer collectively to themselves by using the English word tribes. Scheduled tribes[edit] The Constitution of India, Article 366 (25) defines Scheduled Tribes as such tribes or tribal communities or part of or groups within such tribes or tribal communities as are deemed under Article 342 to the scheduled Tribes (STs) for the purposes of this Constitution. In Article 342, the procedure to be followed for specification of a scheduled tribe is prescribed. However, it does not contain the criterion for the specification of any community as scheduled tribe. An often used criterion is based on attributes such as: †¢Geographical isolation – they live in cloistered, exclusive, remote and inhospitable areas such as hills and forests. †¢Backwardness – their livelihood is based on primitive agriculture, a low-value closed economy with a low level of technology that leads to their poverty. They have low levels of literacy and health. †¢Distinctive culture, language and religion – communities have developed their own distinctive culture, language and religion. †¢Shyness of contact – they have a marginal degree of contact with other cultures and people. [10] Particularly vulnerable tribal groups[edit] The Scheduled Tribe groups who were identified as more isolated from the wider community and who maintain a distinctive cultural identity have been categorised as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PTGs) (previously known as Primitive Tribal Groups) by the Government at the Centre. So far seventy-five tribal communities have been identified as particularly vulnerable tribal groups in different States of India. These hunting, food-gathering, and some agricultural communities, have been identified as less acculturated tribes among the tribal population groups and in need of special programmes for their sustainable development. The tribes are awakening and demanding their rights for special reservation quota for them. [11] Geographical overview[edit] A girl of the Chenchu tribe in the Nallamala forest, Andhra Pradesh There is a substantial list of Scheduled Tribes in India recognised as tribal under the Constitution of India. Tribal people constitute 8. 6% of the nations total population, over 104 million people according to the 2011 census. One concentration lives in a belt along the Himalayas stretching through Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand in the west, to Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur, and Nagaland in the northeast. In the northeastern states of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland, more than 90% of the population is tribal. However, in the remaining northeast states of Assam, Manipur, Sikkim, and Tripura, tribal peoples form between 20 and 30% of the population. Another concentration lives in the hilly areas of central India (Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and, to a lesser extent, Andhra Pradesh); in this belt, which is bounded by the Narmada River to the north and the Godavari River to the southeast, tribal peoples occupy the slopes of the regions mountains. Other tribals, including the Santals, live in Jharkhand and West Bengal. Central Indian states have the countrys largest tribes, and, taken as a whole, roughly 75% of the total tribal population live there, although the tribal population there accounts for only around 10% of the regions total population. There are smaller numbers of tribal people in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala in south India; in western India in Gujarat and Rajasthan, and in the union territories of Lakshadweep and the Andaman Islands and Nicobar Islands. About one percent of the populations of Kerala and Tamil Nadu are tribal, whereas about six percent in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka are members of tribes. The peopling of India[edit] The concept of original inhabitant is directly related to the initial peopling of India, which, due to the debate on topics such as the Indo-Aryan migration hypothesis, has been a contentious area of research and discourse. [12] Some anthropologists hypothesize that the region was settled by multiple human migrations over tens of millennia, which makes it even harder to select certain groups as being truly aboriginal. [13] One narrative, largely based on genetic research, describes Negritos, similar to the Andamanese adivasis of today, as the first humans to colonise India, likely 30–65 thousand years before present (kybp). [14][15] 60% of all Indians share the mtDNA haplogroup M, which is universal among Andamanese islander adivasis and might be a genetic legacy of the postulated first Indians. [16] Some anthropologists theorise that these settlers were displaced by invading Austro-Asiatic-speaking Australoid people (who largely shared skin pigmentation and physiognomy with the Negritos, but had straight rather than curly hair), and adivasi tribes such as the Irulas trace their origins to that displacement. [17][18] The Oraon adivasi tribe of eastern India and the Korku tribe of western India are considered to be examples of groups of Australoid origin. [19][20] Subsequent to the Australoids, most anthropologists and geneticists agree that Caucasoids (including both Dravidians and Indo-Aryans) and Mongoloids (Sino-Tibetans) immigrated into India: the Dravidians possibly from Iran,[21][22][23] the Indo-Aryans possibly from the Central Asian steppes[22][24][25] and the Tibeto-Burmans possibly from the Himalayan and north-eastern borders of the subcontinent. [26] None of these hypotheses is free from debate and disagreement. Ethnic origins and linguistic affiliations in India match only inexactly, however: while the Oraon adivasis are classified as an Australoid group, their language, called Kurukh, is Dravidian. [27] Khasis and Nicobarese are considered to be Mongoloid groups[28][29] and the Munda and Santals are Australoid groups,[30][31][32] but all four speak Austro-Asiatic languages. [28][29][30] The Bhils and Gonds are frequently classified as Australoid groups,[33] yet Bhil languages are Indo-European and the Gondi language is Dravidian. [27] Also, in post-colonial India, tribal languages suffered huge setbacks with the formation of linguistic states after 1956 under the States Reorganisation Act. For example, under state-sponsored educational pressure, Irula children are being taught Tamil and a sense of shame has begun to be associated with speaking the Irula language among some children and educated adults. [17] Similarly, the Santals are gradually adopting languages of the areas inhabited, like Oriya in Odisha, Hindi in Bihar and Bengali in West Bengal. [31] Disruptions during Mughal and colonial periods[edit] Mughal period[edit] Although considered uncivilised and primitive,[34] adivasis were usually not held to be intrinsically impure by surrounding (usually Dravidian or Aryan) casted Hindu populations, unlike Dalits, who were. [7][35] Thus, the adivasi origins of Valmiki, who composed the Ramayana, were acknowledged,[36] as were the origins of adivasi tribes such as the Grasia and Bhilala, which descended from mixed Rajput and Bhil marriages. [37][38] Unlike the subjugation of the Dalits, the adivasis often enjoyed autonomy and, depending on region, evolved mixed hunter-gatherer and farming economies, controlling their lands as a joint patrimony of the tribe. [34][39][40] In some areas, securing adivasi approval and support was considered crucial by local rulers,[7][41] and larger adivasi groups were able to sustain their own kingdoms in central India. [7] The Gond Rajas of Garha-Mandla and Chanda are examples of an adivasi aristocracy that ruled in this region, and were not only the hereditary leaders of their Gond subjects, but also held sway over substantial communities of non-tribals who recognized them as their feudal lords. [39][42] This relative autonomy and collective ownership of adivasi land by adivasis was severely disrupted by the advent of the Mughals in the early 16th century. Rebellions against Mughal authority are the Bhil Rebellion of 1632 and the Bhil-Gond Insurrection of 1943[43] which were both crushed by Mughal soldiers. British period[edit] From the very early days of British rule, the tribesmen resented the British encroachments upon their tribal system. They were found resisting or supporting their brethren of Tamar and Jhalda in rebellion. 11 Nor did their raja welcome the British administrative innovations. [44] Beginning in the 18th century, the British added to the consolidation of feudalism in India, first under the Jagirdari system and then under the zamindari system. [45] Beginning with the Permanent Settlement imposed by the British in Bengal and Bihar, which later became the template for a deepening of feudalism throughout India, the older social and economic system in the country began to alter radically. [46][47] Land, both forest areas belonging to adivasis and settled farmland belonging to non-adivasi peasants, was rapidly made the legal property of British-designated zamindars (landlords), who in turn moved to extract the maximum economic benefit possible from their newfound property and subjects without regard to historical tenure or ownership. [48] Adivasi lands sometimes experienced an influx of non-local settlers, often brought from far away (as in the case of Muslims and Sikhs brought to Kol territory)[49] by the zamindars to better exploit local land, forest and labor. [45][46] Deprived of the forests and resources they traditionally depended on and sometimes coerced to pay taxes, many adivasis were forced to borrow at usurious rates from moneylenders, often the zamindars themselves. [50][51] When they were unable to pay, that forced them to become bonded labourers for the zamindars. [52] Often, far from paying off the principal of their debt, they were unable even to offset the compounding interest, and this was made the justification for their children working for the zamindar after the death of the initial borrower. [52] In the case of the Andamanese adivasis, long isolated from the outside world in autonomous societies, mere contact with outsiders was often sufficient to set off deadly epidemics in tribal populations,[53] and it is alleged that some sections of the British government directly attempted to destroy some tribes. [54] Land dispossession and subjugation by British and zamindar interests resulted in a number of adivasi revolts in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, such as the Santal hul (or Santhal rebellion) of 1855–56. [55] Although these were suppressed ruthlessly by the governing British authority (the East India Company prior to 1858, and the British government after 1858), partial restoration of privileges to adivasi elites (e. g. to Mankis, the leaders of Munda tribes) and some leniency in tax burdens resulted in relative calm, despite continuing and widespread dispossession, from the late nineteenth century onwards. [49][56] The economic deprivation, in some cases, triggered internal adivasi migrations within India that would continue for another century, including as labour for the emerging tea plantations in Assam. [57] Participation in Indian independence movement[edit] There were tribal reform and rebellion movements during the period of the British Empire, some of which also participated in the Indian freedom struggle or attacked mission posts. [58] There were several Adivasis in the Indian independence movement including Dharindhar Bhyuan, Laxman Naik, Jantya Bhil, Bangaru Devi and Rehma Vasave. List of rebellions[edit] During the period of British rule, India saw the rebellions of several backward-castes, mainly tribals that revolted against British rule. These were:. [59] 1. Great Kuki Invasion of 1860s 2. Halba rebellion (1774–79) 3. Chamka rebellion (1776–1787)[60] 4. Chuar rebellion in Bengal (1795–1800)[61] 5. Bhopalpatnam Struggle (1795) 6. Khurda Rebellion in Odisha (1817)[62] 7. Bhil rebellion (1822–1857)[63] 8. Paralkot rebellion (1825) 9. Tarapur rebellion (1842–54) 10. Maria rebellion (1842–63) 11. First Freedom Struggle (1856–57) 12. Bhil rebellion, begun by Tantya Tope in Banswara (1858)[64] 13. Koi revolt (1859) 14. Gond rebellion, begun by Ramji Gond in Adilabad (1860)[65] 15. Muria rebellion (1876) 16. Rani rebellion (1878–82) 17. Bhumkal (1910) 18. The Kuki Uprising (1917–1919)in Manipur 19. 1st Rampa Rebellion (1879), Vizagapatnam (Now Visakhapatnam Dist. ) 20. 2nd Rampa Rebellion (1921–1923), Visakhapatnam Dist. 21. Santhal Revolt (1885–1886) Tribal classification criteria and demands[edit] Scarification, a traditional symbol of Great Andamanese tribal identity (1901 photo) Population complexities, and the controversies surrounding ethnicity and language in India, sometimes make the official recognition of groups as adivasis (by way of inclusion in the Scheduled Tribes list) political and contentious. However, regardless of their language family affiliations, Australoid and Negrito groups that have survived as distinct forest, mountain or island dwelling tribes in India and are often classified as adivasi. [66] The relatively autonomous Mongoloid tribal groups of Northeastern India (including Khasis, Apatani and Nagas), who are mostly Austro-Asiatic or Tibeto-Burman speakers, are also considered to be adivasis: this area comprises 7. 5% of Indias land area but 20% of its adivasi population. [67] However, not all autonomous northeastern groups are considered adivasis; for instance, the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Meitei of Manipur were once tribal but, having been settled for many centuries, are caste Hindus. [68] It is also difficult, for a given social grouping, to definitively decide whether it is a caste or a tribe. A combination of internal social organisation, relationship with other groups, self-classification and perception by other groups has to be taken into account to make a categorisation, which is at best inexact and open to doubt. [69] These categorisations have been diffused for thousands of years, and even ancient formulators of caste-discriminatory legal codes (which usually only applied to settled populations, and not adivasis) were unable to come up with clean distinctions. [70] Demands for tribal classification[edit] An additional difficulty in deciding whether a group meets the criteria to be adivasi or not are the aspirational movements created by the federal and state benefits, including job and educational reservations, enjoyed by groups listed as scheduled tribes (STs). [71] In Manipur, Meitei commentators have pointed to the lack of scheduled tribe status as a key economic disadvantage for Meiteis competing for jobs against groups that are classified as scheduled tribes. [68] In Assam, Rajbongshi representatives have demanded scheduled tribe status as well. [72] In Rajasthan, the Gujjar community has demanded ST status, even blockading the national capital of Delhi to press their demand. [73] However, the Government of Rajasthan declined the Gujjars demand, stating the Gujjars are treated as upper caste and are by no means a tribe. [74] In several cases, these claims to tribalhood are disputed by tribes who are already listed in the schedule and fear economic losses if more powerful groups are recognized as scheduled tribes; for instance, the Rajbongshi demand faces resistance from the Bodo tribe,[72] and the Meena tribe has vigorously opposed Gujjar aspirations to be recognized as a scheduled tribe. [75] Endogamy, exogamy and ethnogenesis[edit] Part of the challenge is that the endogamous nature of tribes is also conformed to by the vast majority of Hindu castes. Indeed, many historians and anthropologists believe that caste endogamy reflects the once-tribal origins of the various groups who now constitute the settled Hindu castes. [76] Another defining feature of caste Hindu society, which is often used to contrast them with Muslim and other social groupings, is lineage/clan (or gotra) and village exogamy. [77][78] However, these in-marriage taboos are also held ubiquitously among tribal groups, and do not serve as reliable differentiating markers between caste and tribe. [79][80][81] Again, this could be an ancient import from tribal society into settled Hindu castes. [82] Interestingly, tribes such as the Muslim Gujjars of Kashmir and the Kalash of Pakistan observe these exogamous traditions in common with caste Hindus and non-Kashmiri adivasis, though their surrounding Muslim populations do not. [77][83] Some anthropologists, however, draw a distinction between tribes who have continued to be tribal and tribes that have been absorbed into caste society in terms of the breakdown of tribal (and therefore caste) boundaries, and the proliferation of new mixed caste groups. In other words, ethnogenesis (the construction of new ethnic identities) in tribes occurs through a fission process (where groups splinter-off as new tribes, which preserves endogamy), whereas with settled castes it usually occurs through intermixture (in violation of strict endogamy). [84] Other criteria[edit] Unlike castes, which form part of a complex and interrelated local economic exchange system, tribes tend to form self-sufficient economic units. For most tribal people, land-use rights traditionally derive simply from tribal membership. Tribal society tends to the egalitarian, with its leadership based on ties of kinship and personality rather than on hereditary status. Tribes typically consist of segmentary lineages whose extended families provide the basis for social organisation and control. Tribal religion recognises no authority outside the tribe. Any of these criteria may not apply in specific instances. Language does not always give an accurate indicator of tribal or caste status. Especially in regions of mixed population, many tribal groups have lost their mother tongues and simply speak local or regional languages. In parts of Assam – an area historically divided between warring tribes and villages – increased contact among villagers began during the colonial period, and has accelerated since independence in 1947. A pidgin Assamese developed while educated tribal members learned Hindi and, in the late twentieth century, English. Self-identification and group loyalty do not provide unfailing markers of tribal identity either. In the case of stratified tribes, the loyalties of clan, kin, and family may well predominate over those of tribe. In addition, tribes cannot always be viewed as people living apart; the degree of isolation of various tribes has varied tremendously. The Gonds, Santals, and Bhils traditionally have dominated the regions in which they have lived. Moreover, tribal society is not always more egalitarian than the rest of the rural populace; some of the larger tribes, such as the Gonds, are highly stratified. The apparently wide fluctuation in estimates of South Asias tribal population through the twentieth century gives a sense of how unclear the distinction between tribal and nontribal can be. Indias 1931 census enumerated 22 million tribal people, in 1941 only 10 million were counted, but by 1961 some 30 million and in 1991 nearly 68 million tribal members were included. The differences among the figures reflect changing census criteria and the economic incentives individuals have to maintain or reject classification as a tribal member. These gyrations of census data serve to underline the complex relationship between caste and tribe. Although, in theory, these terms represent different ways of life and ideal types, in reality they stand for a continuum of social groups. In areas of substantial contact between tribes and castes, social and cultural pressures have often tended to move tribes in the direction of becoming castes over a period of years. Tribal peoples with ambitions for social advancement in Indian society at large have tried to gain the classification of caste for their tribes. On occasion, an entire tribe or part of a tribe joined a Hindu sect and thus entered the caste system en masse. If a specific tribe engaged in practices that Hindus deemed polluting, the tribes status when it was assimilated into the caste hierarchy would be affected. Religion[edit] Main article: Tribal religions in India The majority of Adivasi practice Hinduism and Christianity. During the last two decades Adivasi from Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand have converted to Protestant groups. Adivasi beliefs vary by tribe, and are usually different from the historical Vedic religion, with its monistic underpinnings, Indo-European deities (who are often cognates of ancient Iranian, Greek and Roman deities, e. g. Mitra/Mithra/Mithras), lack of idol worship and lack of a concept of reincarnation. [85] Hinduism[edit] Adivasi roots of modern Hinduism[edit] Some historians and anthropologists assert that much of what constitutes folk Hinduism today is actually descended from an amalgamation of adivasi faiths, idol worship practices and deities, rather than the original Indo-Aryan faith. [86][87][88] This also includes the sacred status of certain animals such as monkeys, cows, peacocks, cobras (nagas) and elephants and plants such as the sacred fig (pipal), Ocimum tenuiflorum (tulsi) and Azadirachta indica (neem), which may once have held totemic importance for certain adivasi tribes. [87] Adivasi sants[edit] A sant is an Indian holy man, and a title of a devotee or ascetic, especially in north and east India. Generally a holy or saintly person is referred to as a mahatma, paramahamsa, or swami, or given the prefix Sri or Srila before their name. The term is sometimes misrepresented in English as Hindu saint, although sant is unrelated to saint. †¢Sant Buddhu Bhagat, led the Kol Insurrection (1831–1832) aimed against tax imposed on Mundas by Muslim rulers. †¢Sant Dhira or Kannappa Nayanar[2], one of 63 Nayanar Shaivite sants, a hunter from whom Lord Shiva gladly accepted food offerings. It is said that he poured water from his mouth on the Shivlingam and offered the Lord swine flesh. [3] †¢Sant Dhudhalinath, Koli, Gujarati, a 17th or 18th century devotee (P. 4, The Story of Historic People of India-The Kolis) †¢Sant Ganga Narain, led the Bhumij Revolt (1832–1833) aimed against missionaries and British colonialists. †¢Sant Girnari Velnathji, Koli, Gujarati of Junagadh, a 17th or 18th century devotee[89] †¢Sant Gurudev Kalicharan Brahma or Guru Brahma, a Bodo whose founded the Brahma Dharma aimed against missionaries and colonialists. The Brahma Dharma movement sought to unite peoples of all religions to worship God together and survives even today. †¢Sant Kalu Dev, Punjab, related with Fishermen community Nishadha †¢Sant Kubera, ethnic Gujarati, Koli tribal of Sarsa, taught for over 35 years, and had 20,000 followers in his time. [90] †¢Sant Jatra Oraon, Oraon, led the Tana Bhagat Movement (1914–1919) aimed against the missionaries and British colonialists †¢Sant Sri Koya Bhagat, Koli, Gujarati, a 17th or 18th century devotee[89] †¢Sant Tantya Mama (Bhil), a Bhil after whom a movement is named after – the Jananayak Tantya Bhil †¢Sant Tirumangai Alvar, Kallar, composed the six Vedangas in beautiful Tamil verse [4] Sages[edit] †¢Bhaktaraj Bhadurdas, Koli, Gujarati, a 17th or 18th century devotee[89] †¢Bhakta Shabari, a Nishadha woman who offered Shri Rama and Shri Laxmana her half-eaten ber fruit, which they gratefully accepted when they were searching for Shri Sita Devi in the forest. †¢Madan Bhagat, Koli, Gujarati, a 17th or 18th century devotee[89] †¢Sany Kanji Swami, Koli, Gujarati, a 17th or 18th century devotee[89] †¢Bhaktaraj Valram, Koli, Gujarati, a 17th or 18th century devotee[89] Maharishis[edit] †¢Maharshi Matanga,[91] Matanga Bhil, Guru of Bhakta Shabari. In fact, Chandalas are often addressed as ‘Matanga ’in passages like Varaha Purana 1. 139. 91 †¢Maharshi Valmiki, Kirata Bhil, composed the Ramayana. [36] He is considered to be an avatar in the Balmiki community. Avatars[edit] †¢Birsa Bhagwan or Birsa Munda, considered an avatar of Khasra Kora. People approached him as Singbonga, the Sun god. His sect included Christian converts. [5] He and his clan, the Mundas, were connected with Vaishnavite traditions as they were influenced by Sri Chaitanya. [6] Birsa was very close to the Panre brothers Vaishnavites. †¢Kirata – the form of Lord Shiva as a hunter. It is mentioned in the Mahabharata. The Karppillikkavu Sree Mahadeva Temple, Kerala adores Lord Shiva in this avatar and is known to be one of the oldest surviving temples in Bharat. †¢Vettakkorumakan, the son of Lord Kirata. †¢Kaladutaka or Vaikunthanatha, Kallar (robber), avatar of Lord Vishnu. [7] Other tribals and Hinduism[edit] Some Hindus believe that Indian tribals are close to the romantic ideal of the ancient silvan culture[92] of the Vedic people. Madhav Sadashiv Golwalkar said: The tribals can be given yajnopavita (†¦) They should be given equal rights and footings in the matter of religious rights, in temple worship, in the study of Vedas, and in general, in all our social and religious affairs. This is the only right solution for all the problems of casteism found nowadays in our Hindu society. [93] At the Lingaraj Temple in Bhubaneswar, there are Brahmin and Badu (tribal) priests. The Badus have the most intimate contact with the deity of the temple, and only they can bathe and adorn it. [94][95] The Bhils are mentioned in the Mahabharata. The Bhil boy Ekalavyas teacher was Drona, and he had the honour to be invited to Yudhisthiras Rajasuya Yajna at Indraprastha. [96] Indian tribals were also part of royal armies in the Ramayana and in the Arthashastra. [97] Shabari was a Bhil woman who offered Rama and Lakshmana jujubes when they were searching for Sita in the forest. Matanga, a Bhil, became a Brahmana. [citation needed] Sarna[edit] The Oraon tribe followed the Sarna religion,[98] where Sarna means sacred grove. Their religion is based on the oral traditions passed from generation-to-generation. It strongly believes in one God, the Great Spirit. Traditionally, the women were not allowed into the Sarna places of worship (sarna sthal), but Akhil Bhartiya Sarna Dharma Samiti (All India Sarna Religion Committee) has campaigned against this custom. [99] Demands for a separate religious code[edit] Some Adivasi organisations have demanded that a distinct religious code be listed for Adivasis in the 2011 census of India. The All India Adivasi Conference was held on 1 and 2 January 2011 at Burnpur, Asansol, West Bengal. 750 delegates were present from all parts of India and cast their votes for Religion code as follows: Sari Dhorom – 632, Sarna – 51, Kherwalism – 14 and Other Religions – 03. Census of India. [100] Tribal system[edit] Tribals are not part of the caste system,[101] and usually constitute egalitarian societies. Christian tribals do not automatically lose their traditional tribal rules. When in 1891 a missionary asked 150 Munda Christians to inter-dine with people of different rank, only 20 Christians did so, and many converts lost their new faith. Father Haghenbeek concluded on this episode that these rules are not pagan, but a sign of national sentiment and pride, and wrote: On the contrary, while proclaiming the equality of all men before God, we now tell them: preserve your race pure, keep your customs, refrain from eating with Lohars (blacksmiths), Turis (bamboo workers) and other people of lower rank. To become good Christians, it (inter-dining) is not required. [102] However, many scholars argue that the claim that tribals are an egalitarian society in contrast to a caste-based society is a part of a larger political agenda by some to maximize any differences from tribal and urban societies. According to scholar Koenraad Elst, caste practices and social taboos among Indian tribals date back to antiquity: The Munda tribals not only practise tribal endogamy and commensality, but also observe a jati division within the tribe, buttressed by notions of social pollution, a mythological explanation and harsh punishments. A Munda Catholic theologian testifies: The tribals of Chhotanagpur are an endogamous tribe. They usually do not marry outside the tribal community, because to them the tribe is sacred. The way to salvation is the tribe. Among the Santals, it is tabooed to marry outside the tribe or inside ones clan, just as Hindus marry inside their caste and outside their gotra. More precisely: To protect their tribal solidarity, the Santals have very stringent marriage laws. A Santal cannot marry a non-Santal or a member of his own clan. The former is considered as a threat to the tribes integrity, while the latter is considered incestuous. Among the Ho of Chhotanagpur, the trespasses which occasion the exclusion from the tribe without chance of appeal, are essentially those concerning endogamy and exogamy. Inter-dining has also been prohibited by many Indian tribal peoples. Education[edit] Extending the system of primary education into tribal areas and reserving places for tribal children in middle and high schools and higher education institutions are central to government policy, but efforts to improve a tribes educational status have had mixed results. Recruitment of qualified teachers and determination of the appropriate language of instruction also remain troublesome. Commission after commission on the language question has called for instruction, at least at the primary level, in the students native tongue. In some regions, tribal children entering school must begin by learning the official regional language, often one completely unrelated to their